Case Study – Sustainable Tourism in Lagos, Portugal

[pic] College of Commerce Catering and Tourism Sustainable Tourism Case study on the tourism related problems of Lagos, Portugal [pic] Rebecca Zug 19. 11. 2012 Table of Contents 1. Executive Summary 3 2. Findings 4 3. Discussion 5 4. Conclusion and Recommendations 8 5. Implementation 8 6. References9 Case study: Lagos, Algarve, Portugal 1 1. Executive Summary The reason why I choose Lagos for this case study is because I was living there from May 2012 – October 2012 and I think it is a good example for some problems which may occur due to tourism.However it is not an example for the typical mass tourism associated problems, because the nature of tourism in the Algarve is water sports related and therefore reflects a different lifestyle and attitude to the local environment. Lagos Lagos is a harbor town in the Portuguese Algarve coast. The region Lagos has about 30000 constant inhabitants, but due to the fact that Tourism brings 3 million people to the Algarve every year the am ount of inhabitants may be tripled at certain times of the year. Furthermore it has the highest share of residents with foreigners in the whole country.It is probably the most popular destination in the Algarve, because it offers a great diversity of activities for the whole family but mainly the younger generation (water sports: surfing, kiting, wakeboarding, diving, kayaking, as well as a huge gastronomical repertory with countless English bars, restaurants (mainly foreign cuisine), but still kept its old flair in the carless old town due to its 2000 year old history. There are several beaches, one km long sandy beach and more small bays, which are although it is quite a big town still not the typical city beaches.There are only separated single restaurants directly at the beaches, keeping the â€Å"original† coastline, while buildings are only few hundred meters behind. As you can see the problem is obvious as tourism caused kind of an invasion of foreigners on Lagos. A s very tough example: I did not use the Portuguese language ones because there were more foreigners around in town than Portuguese and even them adapted the English language so well (in the most important daily functions) that it was absolutely not necessary.This overcrowding of foreigners leads to a couple of tensions with the locals but there are some opportunities arising of tourism there as well which I am going to explain in the following study. First of all I am going to analyze all the problems occurred by tourism differentiated by their nature. First the problems occurred by the amount of foreigners (- socio cultural impacts) and then the environmental impacts and their economic consequences. Furthermore I am going to point out the opportunities which are already given but not used in this area.These opportunities lead to the solutions I may suggest to overcome the problems and finally I am going to write about the implementation, how the solutions may be adopted. 2 2. Finding s The main problem of Lagos is that the tourism sector and therefore the main business sector is ruled by foreigners. Most hotels, surf camps and water sports providing facilities as well as bars are owned by foreign people, mostly English and Germans which is the reason why most of the tourists are English and German too.Other than in most other vacation spots the tourism facilities are not only owned but run as well solely by foreigners. The reason for that is the new â€Å"fashion† of employing foreign interns rather than locals for every department in hospitality and gastronomy, because they are even more cheap (mostly board and lodging and a little pocket money) than locals. This phenomena is not used in lower quality accommodation but, as I experienced in former internships, in up to 5 star hotels as well.Of course it is a profitable way for the owners, because interns are highly motivated to learn, therefore they accept every kind of work for a very low compensation. F urthermore they are usually highly educated, studied in the field of operation and speak more languages. This is why owners of in this case surf camps and hotels employ mainly interns for the seasons. Another advantage of interns is to avoid the problems of seasonality, because they can primarily work in semester breaks or after high school graduation exactly in the time when the (high) season is.However this sounds perfect for accommodation facility owners it is a huge problem for the local community. Like this the positive impact of tourism in generating jobs for the community is missing due to the fact that even the lower quality jobs are given to foreigners. As well with the low wages for interns it is impossible to actually live a normal life in the area. My experience was that ONLY if it was really necessary (end of the season when everybody has gone home) owners are willing to employ locals for a couple of weeks as well on a higher wage (almost double), but solely if there is no other choice.Another problem arising of this is that most of these interns are not registered or on a no-payment base for what the owners do not have to pay taxes. This induces a lack of income for the community as well. In higher quality hotels it also creates an image of not trained staff (â€Å"intern flair†) which degrades the quality of services. But not only the accommodation facilities are run and owned by foreigners, almost every single bar in town as well. Also because of the majority of outgoers are foreigners the barmen and waiters are 90% foreigners, youngsters working the seasons, who only need money for their next trip.My observation was that only some restaurants but rather bistros and breakfast cafes are owned and run by Portuguese. The lack of jobs (unemployment rate in the Algarve is the highest in the whole country: 20%) leads to crime generation of the locals, who as kind of a revenge rob and break into foreign-owned houses. Other socio-cultural proble ms arising from the impacts of tourism are due to the above mentioned: the standardization and commercialization of the Portuguese culture. A very common phenomena is the building of outlets or well known chains in gastronomy or commerce sector (e. . McDonalds, Pizza Hut, Aldi, Lidl). The gastronomy of Lagos is ruled by all imaginable foreign The Green Room (Mexican Restaurant) in the old town of Lagos countries cuisines (Italian, Japan, Thai, English, Turkish, Romanian, Mexican†¦) but a very small part of real Portuguese food. An economic disadvantage is furthermore that there are loads of foreign supermarkets as well like Aldi and Lidl, which are cheaper and more familiar to tourists and the great number of English residents in this area.This means that the positive impact of the multiplier effect of tourism is missing, because foreigners do not go grocery shopping in local shops. As already mentioned the Portuguese language is starting to get lost due to the number of foreig ners not willing to learn and not forced to learn it because everybody speaks at least the necessary communicative English needed to manage everyday life. This adoption of tourist demands leads to a slow but very significant decrease in Portuguese culture. Environmental ImpactsThe problem of pollution is steady everywhere where people are and of course more people create more pollution and waste, this makes it to a fundamental problem of tourism. Water consumption in watering gardens of hotels, camps as well as pools and golf courses is an essential problem in the rainless months of the summer. Moreover is there no regulation for recycling in Portugal. Waste is collected in one huge ton for every street. There is no refuse collection for every house, however there are quite a lot recycling stations but this is only volunteer.Seasonality as in almost every tourism destination is an issue in Lagos as well. Low season starts in May + June, July + August are high season and September + October are low season again. From November – End of April most of the hotels, camps are closed or operate only partly. This provokes an even higher unemployment rate and of course lack of income. 3 3. Discussion The main problem of the foreigners â€Å"stealing† the jobs of the Portuguese is a very serious issue and can not be solved without the interaction of the local government.In my opinion there should be a regulation, setting a specific percentage of employees, who must be local. There are several examples where this governmental interaction lead to advantageous outcomes (GCC member states). In the Oman for example, the government set a guaranteed employment quote of locals, called Omanization, aiming the reduction of the portion of foreign employees. This way the unemployment rate would be decreased and therefore the tensions between locals and foreign business owners would be reduced as well.Difficulties may arise with the European Union, whose four main aims (free movement of people, capital, goods and services – jobs) are in contradiction with not allowing foreigners to work in a country different to their home country. But realizing the bad financial situation of Portugal and the statistical data has a lot to commend it. Also is employing locals a very important cultural aspect in the guests satisfaction, who lacked the involvement of Portuguese culture during their stay. As well do people living their whole life on the spot of course have a better knowledge about natural conditions, which are very important for water sports.Furthermore there should be a tax reduction for employers hiring locals, to make the employment of them attractive and economically advantageous. Due to this business owners are hopefully keen to officially reinvolve locals rather than foreign interns and therefore pay taxes on them. As well education in Lagos must be enhanced. There is only one University in the Algarve (in Faro) with an extension to the n earby Portimao which is public, all other higher education institutes are private.Furthermore most of the international schools are private as well and there are barely high quality state-run secondary schools. This means that mostly only the children of foreigners are getting a good education in this area, locals mainly have to go further away (Lisbon) and when they are already gone, they most of the times are not coming back, being aware of the bad employment situation in the Algarve. So even if the youth has the opportunity to be educated quite far away, they afterwards go abroad (a phenomena we can observe in Hungary as well).My suggestion would be to make the access to higher and good quality education available for everybody (mainly with European Union tenders) and put an effort in the education of occupations needed in this area: Tourism and water sports. Economically surf camps can help as well in producing income for the local community, for example in sending their guests to nearby cafes to have breakfast there. These breakfast possibilities are around almost every corner and owned by locals, because locals love to eat breakfast outside and combine it with a casual chat with friends.Thus guests have the opportunity in learning about the culture and habits as well as add to the local economy. Economically this won't affect the camps, because breakfast is absolutely not the main income source and rather eases up the work in camps and helps to concentrate on the major activities. Discounted firm prices may be negotiated, sometimes even with a commission for the camps. Problems would occur for camps outside the city center, there are a few camps (Algarve Watersports, The Surf Experience) which are located far away from the old town and therefore do not have the opportunity to send guests away for breakfast.The standardization problem of the local restaurants, who barely serve typical Portuguese food occurred due to the fear of local business owners. Ther e are a few Portuguese restaurants (e. g. Casinha do Petisco) with great Portuguese cuisine, enormous portions and good prices. Every single night this restaurant is full of people and there is barely never a less waiting time than 45 minutes to get a table. Although it looks quite unimposing it is the best going restaurant in town (even in the off season) full of a mixture of locals and tourists as well.This means that the demand for Portuguese cuisine is present and a great opportunity, which only has to be captured. Here the camps might help again, due to the fact that they normally do not serve dinner. Making agreements with local business owners serving Portuguese food, will probably emphasize others to at least serve Portuguese food as well, because many guests complained about â€Å"not being in Portugal† regarding the food supply. The environmental threats may be solved due to small interactions of the government again. For example the recycling of waste should be obl igatory.As it is seen in several European countries since decades (Germany, England), those guests and foreign residents even do it voluntarily in Lagos. We made it obligatory in our surf camp, but every time I brought the separated waste to the recycling stations, I only saw Recycling station in Lagos foreigners, who did the same. This is a good opportunity of tourism to promote recycling. It may be made obligatory intern by single camps, but there is a need of governmental intervention to make locals recycle as well.Due to the fact that there is no regular garbage collection for every house making it very difficult to control who is throwing his waste how away. Therefore it should be (e. g. as in Germany), that there should be a garbage collection for every house and every household gets different recycling tons on a yearly payment. Thus if people do not recycle his waste won't be taken away. As a matter of course this is combined with enormous costs, but may be covered by e. g. h igher annual payment of foreigners and European Union contributions.It would furthermore create jobs, because the garbage collection of every household requires more people. The pollution due to water sports activities is in proportion very low, because the main activity of surfing comes with an environmental friendly lifestyle. This green close to nature way of life is promoted and educated in the surf camps in encouraging their guests to be very careful with the environment, recycling, low water consumption etc. and advertise to respect the locals (with t-shirts for example).In a surfing society these things are so evident, that people react very upset on people ignoring these unwritten laws. (â€Å"Leave nothing but footprints and take nothing but memories†) Surf camps and locals know that the beaches Beach of Zavial are their main income source, this is why they are absolutely protected, no waste is left there and they are almost totally untouched, mainly only one restaur ant. Even the beach boys and lifeguards use surfboards and not motorized lifeboats in cases of emergencies.This statement is as well proved by the fact that even robberies hardly ever occur on the beaches, it is possible to stay hours in the water while nobody looks after one's belongings and nothing happens, but if one once do not lock the windows in his apartment, it is 99% sure that he won't find his apartment as it was left. The only thing which could be reduced are the daily long drives to the west coast. Every surf school in the Algarve has only one or two licenses (only The Surf Experience (first surf school in the Algarve) has the right to go to almost every beach) to teach surfing at a beach.This is actually a very good thing, so the carrying capacity of the beaches is balanced anf there are never to much schools, people at the beaches. But many schools have licenses for far away beaches (e. g. Algarve Watersport in Lagos has a license for the beach in Monte Clerigo  œ 40 km away) they have to drive there every day. Surely the possibility of surfing must be secured, but there are geographically closer beaches for the differently located camps as well. Also the public transport opportunities should be enhanced. Currently there are barely busses to the beaches, only to the major cities.As well the accessibility of Lagos from the airport after 20. 00 is poor, only with private shuttle busses. Due to the extension of the public transportation air pollution may be reduced. The problem of seasonality, in Lagos due to the climatic variations of a continental area, are that serious that most of the tourism related businesses have to close down the operation for the winter months, to avoid financial loss. Resulting in Lagos becoming a â€Å"ghost town†. An opportunity to avoid closing down the whole operation may be to offer discounted packages for this time, because actually the natural conditions or surfing are the best from November until March and the air temperature is still mild and springlike. But it is always hard to measure if it is worth to even run the operations on a very low level, because the â€Å"real surfer† for whom this conditions are advantageous won't come to a surf school or camp. This is why I would suggest a steady operation especially for apartment rentals, rental car providers, surf shops and restaurants. It is as well important to consider that people working during a season do not have the chance to rest or even think about holidays.Off season is the only time these workers can think about themselves, go on holiday, visit their families or even make doctors appointments. So people are actually looking forward to the end of the season (if they have an alternative job or earned enough to bridge the income less winter months). In addition may these time be used for maintenance works in the accommodation facilities. On these grounds I think that seasonality in this area has indeed a very powerf ul impact, but not in an absolutely negative way. 4 4. Conclusion and RecommendationsAs already mentioned is governmental intervention essential to solve the problems of the Lago's community. To avoid the negative economical impacts occurred by tourism and to achieve more positive impacts of it some regulations must be appointed: The introduction of an obligatory guaranteed employment rate of locals in every tourism related business and a tax reduction for businesses employing more locals than required, so the unemployment rate can be controlled and the thereby emerging socio-cultural conflicts may be reduced.In addition should recycling be made obligatory and the public transfer to the beaches should be enhanced. Also should the state-owned educational system be improved and specialized on available occupations, so that locals are able to stay in their home towns or areas and still receive effective education and have a belief in a future there. All in all are surf camps ecological ly sensitive accommodations that work to preserve the local environment, culture and surf. Those camps help ensure that tourism is sustainable and that the spot will be around for years to come.This great opportunity given by tourism must be captured. Surf camps can contribute economically and environmentally to make tourism in Lagos more sustainable. Economically and socio-culturally by encouraging their guests to go to local restaurants and put their breakfast into local cafes and environmentally while staying educative and teach the environmental friendly surfer's lifestyle to their guests. 5 5. Implementation The implementation of these solutions must be â€Å"SMART†: Specific, measurable, attainable, realistic and timely.To specify the goals I have to answer the following questions: What: To make Lagos more sustainable, while balancing the amount of local and foreign workers, therefore encouraging business owners to employ more locals, ease up occurred tensions between l ocals and foreigners and promote the â€Å"green† surfer lifestyle. Who: With the regulative and financial help of the government and the educative support of local surf camps When: Regulations should be set for the next season already, education during the season Where: Lagos and its affected beaches, PortugalWhy: Lagos is one of the most visited cities in the Algarve, not capturing the potential of being more sustainable would occur in an absolute invasion of foreigners, the loss of Portuguese culture and the excess of Lagos' carrying capacity. Measuring: How much? How will I know when it is accomplished: The unemployment rate should be reduced down to max 5-10 %. Local tourism related businesses should have a percentage of min 30% of locals working for them.All the surf camps in town should if possible transfer their breakfast to local cafes. Attainable: How can the goal be accomplished: The goals may be accomplished with the interaction of the government, the surf camps a nd the locals as well. Relevant: Does this seem worthwhile: Implementing these solutions will make Lagos more sustainable and keep it as an attractive destination in the future as well. Is this the right time: It is definitely the right time, because the problems will get worse and worse if nothing is to be done.Does this match other needs: It perfectly matches the most important need of reducing the negative and increasing the positive impacts of tourism. Time-bound: When: ASAP What can be done today: Inform and encourage to do something: governments, authorities, camps and locals. 6 6. References Personal experiences while working at Algarve Watersports http://www. carvoeiro. net/news-reader/items/2011-01-01_arbeitslosigkeit_an_der_algarve. html http://topachievement. com/smart. html ———————– [pic] ———————– 9

Persistence of Memory by Salvador Dali

The early 1920s art movement of surrealism was founded by Andre Breton, a French writer. Compared to other art groups or movements, surrealism focused on evoking the unconscious in painting. Members of this group showed immense importance in illustrating a â€Å"more profound reality revealed by the unconscious mind. † Most of the surrealists have unusual portrayal of images in their paintings. They create visuals that go â€Å"beyond mere painting to reach a new level of reality. † This extraordinary approach in creating a provocative image is derived from the surrealists’ dreams. The products of their subconscious mind combined with the concept of â€Å"enigma or mystery† have been their inspiration in producing eccentric but remarkable masterpieces (Artbeyondsight. com). One of the famous Surrealist painters who is well-known for his bizarre ideas and eccentric behaviors was Salvador Dali. Most of his artworks became and integral part in the advancement of the Surrealist aesthetic. His main objective was to â€Å"materialize images of concrete irrationality with the most imperialist fury of precision. More so, Dali’s paintings illustrated dream-like images but these were treated with precision and fine details that made the viewers enter a hallucinatory landscape. Dali named these paintings with dream and fantasy theme as â€Å"hand-painted dream photographs. † In these artworks, unusual placement of images and the modification of a specific form into another completely new form were evident. Because of this composition, it appears that most of Dali’s paintings defy the principle of Physics. He created images that represented the â€Å"irrational and unpredictable world of the dream† (Artbeyondsight. om). In the painting Persistence of Memory, Dali presented the unusual images of melted watches. Dali said that the elements present in this particular painting are â€Å"nothing else, but the Camembert cheese of space and time; tender, outlandish, solitary and critical-paranoiac† (3d-dali. com, 2008). This painting can be classified as a landscape painting, a self portrait or a still-life painting. It all depends on the viewers’ perception and knowledge on how to understand and interpret the painting. In terms of the visual elements exhibited, the background is a beach landscape while the foreground consists of the strange images of three melted pocket watches, the rectangular box and an animal-like creature. The unusual objects created a mysterious effect while the realistic lighting and coloring added a realness factor to the painting. At first glance, these may all seem meaningless and peculiar but if viewers would look closely and try to find out the rationale for putting these elements together, they could get a better grasp of understanding of the paintings and the inner workings of Dali’s mind. According to Robert Bradford, the bare, hard outline of the cliffs and the crystal light of the sky are there, but the empty, desert-like expanses of the painting are much closer to the topography of the min, to a dreamscape. The viewer’s anxiety is fermented precisely through the lack of clues of distance, of recognizable landmark, of time of day, of temperature-it could equally be as hot, or as cold as an unknown planet. We are in an arena of silence, a frozen nightmare, in which nothing moves or make a noise. (p. 146) Overall, the Persistence of Memory is an artwork that takes the viewers into a very interesting world wherein they are transported from the predictable realm of reality to a place filled with ambiguity and peculiarity. The techniques in coloring and brush strokes employed by Dali were conventional but it is the compositional aspects that stand out are the placement and the choice of objects displayed in the painting. This painting ingeniously juxtaposed the real with the make believe which are the primary characteristics of Surrealism. References 3d-dali.com. (2008). Salavador Dali Painitngs. Retrieved November 28, 2008, from http://www.3d-dali.com/dali_paintings_analysis_interpretation.htm Artbeyondsight.com. (n.d.). Salvador Dali and Surrealism. Retrieved November 28, 2008, from http://www.artbeyondsight.org/ahtts/dali-read.shtml Radford, R. (1997). Dali. London: Phaidon Press Ltd.

Language Slang

Language is one of those spheres of human activity that are the first to bring reaction to social and other kinds of changes in human life and activities. Language may even not only follow or accompany these changes but also cause them. Every social or political change, revolution, innovation, introduction of new words and terms is reflected in newspaper publications. A great number of people, over 70%, read newspapers everyday[1 5]. Andto keep such a large number of people reading, the newspaper must be easy to read and understand. Using a type of speech that people se everyday is an easy way to accomplish that.Using colloquial speech should also be used depending on the audience that is reading a newspaper article[1 1,125-126]. Colloquial speech should also be used if an article is written for children or teenagers. A teenager would better relate to â€Å"Hey, what's up? † than â€Å"Greetings. How are you this fine September afternoon? † Because they can relate to it , they are more likely to understand the text and keep on reading. Not only teenagers and children use this type of language. Many adults still use words like â€Å"radar† and â€Å"e-mail†; either of them are formal English[1 5].That is why the theme of this term paper is of a great importance. The relevance of the term paper iscaused bypermanent development of language. While doing our research we will take into account the works of such scientists as Arnold I. V. , Galperin I. R. , Rayevska N. M, Kukharenko V. A. , Antrushyna H. B. and other scholars, who have already made a great contribution to investigating colloquial vocabulary and newspaper style. The task of this term paper is to present the use of colloquial words in British and American newspapers. The aim of the term paper is to analyze the colloquial vocabulary in English newspapers.To achieve the above mentioned purpose the following objectives are established: to study the theoretical material which is r elated to the topic of the term paper; -to analyze the newspapers of Great Britain and USA with the aim of selecting special colloquial words; -to define the dominant part of colloquial vocabulary prevailing among the newspapers. The object of the term paper is lexical units representing colloquial English vocabulary. The subject of the term paper is the study of the eculiarities of colloquial vocabulary of English newspapers.The material for the study is taken from different newspaper articles in the following British and American newspapers: The Gurdian, The New York Times, The Daily mirror, The Sun. In this term paper thefollowing methods of research have been used: -the method of analysis and synthesis; -descriptive method. The method of analysis is used to break a complex topic into smaller parts to gain a better understanding of it. The method of synthesis is used to combine separate elements of research in order to form a coherent whole. Descriptive method is used o present t he picture of a phenomena under study.

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Industry report - Essay Example The term petroleum industry refers to all industrial activities associated with exploration, mining, refining, transporting, and selling of petroleum products. This paper will present an overview of the petroleum industry giving specific focus to the evolution of the current trends in the industry, key players and their strategic objectives, the scope for new entrant. This will also analyze the demand and supply ratio of the fuel and major challenges the industry is facing today. This report will help one understand how complex the operating environment of the petroleum industry is amidst the growing economic uncertainty, regulatory pressures, and commodity price instability. 2. Industry overview As mentioned in the introduction, numerous activities from exploration to marketing constitute the modern petroleum industry. Although fuel oil and gasoline are the major products of the industry, it involves other chemical materials like pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, a nd plastics. Petroleum is a natural but complex liquid mixture of hydrocarbons and several organic compounds found underground in geologic formations (Petroleum and Petroleum Products). Although the fossil fuel in the natural form was used by humans before around 5000 years, it evolved to be an important industry in the world economy by 19th century. The history of commercial oil wells and refineries could be traced back to 1800s when imperial Russia emerged as the largest producer of oil. By the beginning of the 20th century, Apsheron Peninsula became the hub of oil from which Russia drilled out half of the world’s total oil production and became the leader in international oil markets. Industrial revolution played the key role in enhancing the petroleum industry. The invention of fuel run machines and transportation intensified the demand for fuel, and thereby the developing world’s exploration for oil. The result was that several economies across the world discovere d their own oil fields. By 1850s both Canada and the United States developed their own oil wells and refineries, and the continued exploration in the industry enabled the US to outsmart Russia by becoming the largest producer of oil by the first quarter of 20th century. The industry has been amazingly vulnerable to change and instability that by the World War II US lost its leading position in the market to the new entrants of the industry, Middle East. Subsequently, the industry underwent tremendous changes. Huge oil tankers, pipelines, deepwater drills, drillships etc became the major characteristics of the petroleum industry, and multi-governmental organizations like OPEC and OAPEC emerged to be the most powerful bodies that cold control the oil prices and policies. Concerns over environmental issues related to oil and gas operations are also increasing across the globe as new projects have adverse impacts on the earth, water, and air due to the possibility of oil spills and the effect of pollutants such as CO2. 3. Key players Petroleum industry has turned to be a great phenomenon that the number of players and their positions in the market is highly subject to change. Although in general sense, international oil companies are perceived as the main players who determine the oil prices and

Human Resources Functions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Human Resources Functions - Essay Example To perform its add value function, the human resource planning should be fully integrated with an  overall organizational strategic plan, especially the firm's growth objectives. Outside influences f economic conditions, technology, the labor market, and so on should be given adequate consideration when developing the human resource plan. Changes in job design should be explicitly recognized in the plan. It should be kept flexible and adaptable so it can change as conditions change. Staffing is the process f hiring people to perform work for the organization. It comprises two major activities: recruitment and selection. Recruitment is the set f activities an organization uses to attract job candidates who have the abilities and attitudes needed to help the organization achieves its objectives. Selection is the process f choosing individuals who have the necessary qualifications to perform a particular job well. These two activities are key human resource activities in every organization. And these are continuous processes in organizational life. (Diallo 2003) Staffing is a mutual matching process: organizations seek individuals who will help them achieve goals such as profitability, growth, and in some cases survival; individuals seek organizational that will help them achieve goals such as fulfilling needs and obtaining rewards.   Staffing is a mutual matching process: organizations seek individuals who will help them achieve goals such as profitability, growth, and in some cases survival; individuals seek organizational that will help them achieve goals such as fulfilling needs and obtaining rewards. HR must achieve both types f fit in order to be maximally effective. A better job f recruiting and matching employees to jobs will mean lower employee turnover and greater employee satisfaction and organizational effectiveness. Moreover, HR should pay attention to align their recruitment and selection practices with their business strategy(s) and organizations must have the human capabilities that enable them to effectively implement their chosen strategy(s). Some organizations even consider their human resource talents as a source of competitive advantage and adapt business strategies to fit those organizational capabilities. With the anticipated shortage of new entrants to the labor force in the next decade, staffing will be a key issue for HR for some time to come. This is especially true during these hard financial times when the compensation and benefits you can provide to attract and retain staff are limited. HR professionals must work to develop training, leadership, diversity, and work/life programs to turn their organizations into places where employees want to stay. New studies and research back up what HR has been saying for years: The organizations that treat their employees well, give them opportunities, and are flexible are the ones that will keep their key talent.

Building Engineering Services Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Building Engineering Services - Essay Example The Manning's equation is given as Where V is the velocity of flow through the drains, R is the mean hydraulic radius, S is the slope of the channel and n the Manning's coefficient. As the flowing liquid would contain different types of materials like floating debris and other suspended particles, necessary care must be taken to prevent any potential problems that would adversely affect the flow. In order to maintain the fluid flow , a minimum velocity need to be maintained. This velocity, termed as self cleaning velocity, is necessary to prevent any particle deposition in the channel bed. Similarly, very high velocity could also harm the channel durability. The liquid flow at high velocity could damage the surface lining of the drains especially when the liquid being conveyed is highly abrasive. All drainage works must be prepared and laid as per the prevailing building regulation rules (ADS Inc, 2008). A minimum diameter of 150 mm must be adopted for all the drainage pipe connections involving more than 10 user locations. Grease separator must be included to all the drains connected to hotels or any cooking related centres. Addition of drains to the existing network must be through prefabricated units to avoid the use of saddles (ADS Inc, 2008). ... In such situations either Rocker pipes or filling compressible materials around the drains are the measures adopted. Finally, the rodent control measures like sealed inspection chambers, intercepting traps and solid gully covers are also very essential (ADS Inc, 2008). Rainwater systems The rainwater collected is not allowed to be discharged to the existing sewer lines. In the case of unavoidable situations , the order of priority of rainwater discharge is initially to a soakway then to a water course and finally to sewer (ADS Inc, 2008). The soakways proposed for such situations must be designed based on the data on the rainfall intensity, soil porosity tests and storage capacity. The details of swales, filters and the detention ponds may also be used. The modification to the roof area and gutter sizes besides providing symphonic and eaves drop system need to be followed as per the guidelines (ADS Inc, 2008). The locations that have more chance to produce the contaminated drainage must be separately handled. The areas affected by the petrol spill must try to direct all drainage to an oil interceptor before further segmentation. Inorder ensure sustainable use of resources the rainwater is put into different types of reuse operations. It is estimated that roof area of atleast 2000 sq ft would be able to gather atleast 1246 gallons during 1 inch rainfall (DoE, n.d.). It could be stored in small tanks placed below the ground surface and could store water when the rain water beings in considerable volume. In addition to the storage systems different types of recharge methods also could be adopted. This would result in significant improvement in the ground water level in the

Research psychology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Research psychology - Essay Example The feared situations can vary from interpersonal social interactions in small groups to talking to strangers. Performance fears, such as speaking in public, also are common. People with social anxiety disorder either avoid feared situations or experience them with extreme anxiety. Most individuals with the disorder have the more severe, "generalized" type, in which the person has other social fears in addition to the common fear of public speaking. Many researchers have conducted research in the area with varying recommendations. Much has been researched on social anxiety and how it affects peoples’ lives. Usually many researches have looked at the causes of social anxiety and how it could be treated. SARA W.holds that one–fifth of patients with social anxiety disorder also suffers from an alcohol use disorder (AUDs). They have argued that one of the theories that can be attributed to this is the tension reduction theory, which proposes that people with social anxiety use alcohol to alleviate their fears. This expectation that alcohol reduces anxiety may motivate alcohol consumption even if pharmacological studies do not support that assumption. She holds that social anxiety disorder is treatable with both pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy. Some researchers have also attributed social anxiety disorders to environmental risk factors such as parenting (Ollendick & Hirshfeld-Becker, 2002). Although the role of parenting has emerged as a small but significant risk factor, less research has focused on parent psychopathology. This lack of attention may be due, in part, to the difficulty in separating out genetic contributions from environmental impact. Despite this, there is some evidence that parents with specific disorders contribute significantly to an increased rate of many childhood and adolescence disorders, potentially even within a particular developmental pathway (Stranger 1999; Burstein

Company Law Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Company Law - Coursework Example This legislation is a critical constituent of the constitution since it provides guidance to corporate entities2. Initially, company act begins by establishing diverse business forms. The key forms include partnership, sole proprietorship and companies. Sole proprietorship Sole proprietorship is the oldest business structure normally founded by a single party. Consequently, the founder of the organization serves as the overall manager of the entity3. Sole proprietorship lacks a legal personality since the owner is accountable for the organization liabilities. Similarly, the revenues of this entity act as the income of the founder for tax purposes. Sole proprietorship is the most rampant form owing to easy in formation. Moreover, the entity’s governance follows few regulations thus its operations are easy to manage. Despite the inclusion of the business form in company law, the entity lacks legal personality4. Therefore, strict legal analysis deters inclusion of Sole proprietor ship in this legislation. Because of the absence of a distinct legal personality, the founder bears all legal consequences that relate to the entity5. Partnership Represents an organization founded by more than one individual. An assorted forms of this partnership exists. Notably, the differences to the partnership exist due to liability of the founding members6. Unlimited liability characterizes a general partnership. Consequently, founders bear legal liability both individually and jointly for business’ transactions. This means that the entity has no legal individuality. Similarly, the founders coin a ratio that dictates sharing of profits. This ratio principally corresponds to the capital ratio. This section of the company provides the basis for dissolution of partnerships. Additionally, the legislation provides for limited partnership. Limited partnership deviates from the convectional partnerships by admitting partners with limited liability. Subsequently, the unlimited partner bears the blunt of the entity’s losses. Partnerships suffer multiple management hitches due to differing ideologies of the partners. However, the Company act provide for a treaty that guides the partnership. The treaty outlines how the partner will operate the entity. Moreover, it establishes the responsibility of the partners. Limited liability companies The Company act predominantly addresses this entity in detail. Fundamentally, a company represents an alliance of individuals with a unified objective. The legislation begins by establishing an entity with a distinct legal individuality7. The distinct legal individuality arose through judicial precedents. The distinct legal personality allows the entity to transact in its own identity. Additionally, a company can undertake legal action against a party. Similarly, the entity can be a defendant in litigation. â€Å"Salmon vs. Salmon† established the legal identity of the companies. Salmon, a shoe designer, incor porated his business with himself as a debenture holder8. Additionally, the entity borrowed more money creating creditors. Owing to industrial upheaval, the entity collapsed and the creditor applied for liquidation of the entity. In adherence to the company act, the liquidators paid Salmon prior to the creditors. Nonetheless, the creditor argued that the entity was a deception hence creditor should receive refunds before Salmon. The lords stated that the entity’

The Role of the Leader in Evaluating Data to Improve Quality and Assignment

The Role of the Leader in Evaluating Data to Improve Quality and Safety Paper - Assignment Example Despite the increased attention within the healthcare industry to facilitate reimbursement to the best available intentions for managing patient falls, the rates continue to escalate, which puts the patients and their caregivers at risk. The facts as depicted in the core of this study indicate the alarming rates, which falls and other critical developments in the care facilities continue to influence the role of the nursing leaders. The facts as presented remain undeniably high compared to the rates of the manageable cases within this case as the report indicates. The telemetry unit in this case is observing an increasing rate of falls of patients. For instance, compared to the average age, which is at 72.4 years, this rate of falls is quite difficult to note the cause. Secondly, the majority of the cases of the patient falls as depicted in the case apply to the patients with diuretics. The patients depict aspects of confusion and disorientation, constituting 12% of the patients with such secondary diagnostics. This establishment is vital to the establishment of workable plan. Additionally, it is also observable that most of the cases of the patient falls occur during the early morning hours. The patient reports indicate that a significant majority of the patients experiencing falls occurs from 3:00 AM to 11:00 AM. Moreover, it is also notable that the minimum number of patient falls occurs in the afternoon hours. These observations indicate the need to evaluate the causative factors contributing to this trend in within the unit. From observing the developments in the fall rates, it is also notable that the average falls is on the rise for each of the days within the hours described. The nurses that recall the incidents when the patient fell indicate that the patient fall rates increase with increase in age. This observation means that the plan to address the cases of patient falls need to consider the vulnerability and co-morbidities

The political atmosphere which influenced the Russian avant garde Essay

The political atmosphere which influenced the Russian avant garde - Essay Example This research paper examines that young artists from Russia decided not to be influenced by literature and painting, rather by the various political movements. Many artists from Russia attended lectures held by Marinetti as they had admiration for Italian futurism. In the years 1908 to 1909, there were various Golden Fleece Markets and some notable artists had their works shown. They included Mikhail Larionov and Natalia Goncharova who promoted scenes that were primitive as well as robust. Later on, during the exhibition known as ‘Donkey’s Tail’, Larionov and Goncharova proved that they could make sure that Russian painting was modernized. At the same time, these two artists were critical and independent concerning western culture. In conclusion, Larionov published the ‘Manifesto of Rayonism’, which had information regarding artistic theories that were new. They were known as synthesis of Orphism, Futurism and Cubism. Larionov was inspired by the scie ntific discovery of ultra-violet rays and radioactivity, thus obtaining the name Rayonism. The Rayonism movement was popular in the western part of Europe from 1913 to 1914. Moreover, in the year 1917, while in Rome, it was zealously taken up and unfortunately, did not survive during the war. In turn, Larionov went to France and worked on the Ballets Russes. This shows that the avant garde in Russia affected many artists and the manner they carried out their work.

The threat of the global economic crisis Essay Example for Free

The threat of the global economic crisis Essay The economic crisis of United States of America has made its way to the economies of the Central Asian nations. The global economic crisis is showing its impact upon the economy of Tajikistan. This global crisis is threatening not only the economy of the country; but also its internal stability. This current downturn seems to have crippled the entire country. The history of Tajikistan does not boast of internal stability, as it has plunged into civil war that had destroyed the very economy of the state. Through this paper, the threat of the global economic crisis on remittances and towards the economy would be studied. In addition, the impact of this crisis over the internal stability of Tajikistan would also be analyzed. At the crucial point of economic destabilization, the country faces an uphill task of lifting itself from falling into the deep trenches of this global economic crisis. The country has various challenges to overcome, in order to successfully combat the current crisis. The various challenges to the economy of Tajikistan include weak infrastructure, inadequate, insufficient and ailing health and education systems and failing institutions like the financial system and the civil service. These challenges are not the only cause of concern for the country; its geography and demography along with political turmoil, make the matter worse for it. The country already had host of problems and this economic crisis has just added to its misery. Tajikistan has to address a number of challenges and needs but it does not have adequate resources to combat them. The state of current condition of the country can be judged from the fact that the proposed plan of Government has various modest goals set in their planning. Due to the various resource and capacity constraints, the Government does not have enough on its platter to help the failing economy. The global catastrophe seems to have come at a very critical point for this nation. Various problems have only aggravated the situation of this country. The country still has not been able to lift itself from the energy crisis, which originated in late 2008 and early 2009. Its worsening relations with Russia have just added to the woes, as this has raised the graph of social and economic problems, which the country had been facing since its fall out from the former Soviet Union. All these factors have resulted in creating a deep impact on the nation’s internal political matters. These problems are now threatening the political stability of the country. According to various Analysts, these prevailing conditions would ultimately result in total failure of the state. The rising monetary problems and the continued failure of the Government in combating them would bring the whole country to a standstill. The country at this point would be unsuccessful to perform its basic functions. This situation would result in threatening the steadiness of the nation’s neighbouring countries and the whole region could plunge into a series of hostilities against each other. The resulting crisis may be so severe that it could impact negatively on the stabilization operation of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) in Afghanistan. Some Analysts point out that in coming months, this situation might result in eruption of warfare due to increasing dissatisfaction among the local populace. The ensuing dissatisfaction may lead to the possible overthrow of the current regime. Such action could draw the country into chaos and internal conflict. The country might have detached from Soviet Union, but its economy is still deeply affected by the developments in Russia. Therefore, the developments in the neighbouring Russian Federation and Central Asia Region directly affect developments in Tajikistan. Background Tajikistan is considered to have the worst economy out of the various nations that were carved out of the former USSR. The country’s GDP in 2007 accounted for US$3. 2 billion, while the per capita income was estimated to be US$578. The inflation rate has shown a continuous increase in recent years with the inflation rate in 2008 recorded at 19. 8%. The balance of trade in 2008 recorded a negative turnover, reflecting imbalances in the exports and imports. In 2008, the average salary, for people in Tajikistan, was estimated to be US$68. It would be unfair to compare the flagging condition of the nation’s economy with other break away states of the former Soviet Union. The current state of the Tajik economy is far more comparable with poor nations of Africa or Asia. The development of Tajikistan has faced several hurdles in the past. These hurdles are of diverse nature as they include various geographic and historical factors, as well as, economic and political factors. The economic factors include the poor development of the industry, weak infrastructure, lack of communication networks and lack of foreign investments. There were various political factors that negatively affected the economy of Tajikistan. These political factors came into picture right after its break up with the USSR. The 1992 1997 civil wars, in particular, had a major role to play in disturbing the economy of Tajikistan. Although the civil war ended with a firm settlement, it failed to bring any benefit to the country. After the civil war ended, Emomali Rahmon occupied the position of President of Tajikistan in 1994. Emomali could not gain any benefit from the settlements reached after the civil war or from the West, due to Afghanistan’s related war on Terror. He does not appear to have made much effort to change the conditions of the country since his inauguration as President. The present political system of the country suffers from many major problems such as corruption, clan system, biasness and bureaucracy. It is also alleged that certain elements of the Government and state apparatus is engaged in smuggling of drugs in the region. In order to understand this crisis, the background of country’s political and economical state is essential. 2. Economy of the Country Tajikistan became one of the poorest nations in the Central Asia after coming out of the clutches of civil war in 1997. Its foreign exchange mainly comes from the cotton and aluminium exports. This has resulted in increased sensitivity of the state to external imbalances. The deteriorating health of the economy can be noticed from the fact that in the year 2000, Tajikistan’s rehabilitation program was entirely dependent upon the international aid. This rehabilitation program brought back the combatants of civil war into the mainstream, which assisted the country in making peace at both ends. International aid was required to assist the country in combating the food crisis that Tajikistan had encountered due to severe drought. After the civil war, there was some recovery in the economy, as it grew considerably after 2000. According to the data provided by World Bank, for period 2000-2004, the GDP of the country grew at a rate of 9. 6%. This growth in GDP led to improvement in country’s position among other Central Asian countries such as Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. But since then the economy of the country has been continuously moving backwards. According to the figures available, nearly 57% of the population of this country lives below the poverty line. The country is stricken with widespread poverty. The dollar exchange rate is estimated to be 0. 82 Somoni. The wages in the country are low amounting to nearly $2-$3 per day for an average person in 2007. The civil war lasted for six years creating innumerable problems for the country including a strained relationship with Russia that resulted in loss of subsidies and more importantly the loss of its products market. The country has to look for assistance from Russia and Uzbekistan and other international humanitarian bodies to fulfil the country’s basic needs. In addition to this, the country faces the uphill task of bringing back the refugees and combatants of civil war in the country’s mainstream. The stability of the nation and pace of the peace process has an important part to play in attracting foreign investment, as well as determining the country’s future. In the 1990’s, the GDP per capita of the country fell by 67%. In the financial year 2000, the Government of Tajikistan went into reform mode and took steps towards promoting macroeconomic stabilization and certain institutional reforms even though it faced endless number of protests. The Government pursued privatization of small enterprises and increased privatization of medium and large state-owned enterprises. The Government’s budget for development of economy, during 2000, was in control until 2005. The growth rate of the financial system was in good shape with an annual growth rate above 6 percent. The main industries of the country consist of the following: †¢ Agriculture †¢ Forestry †¢ Fishing †¢ Mining and Minerals †¢ Industry and Manufacturing †¢ Energy †¢ Services The country’s economy is highly dependent on agriculture and livestock. The reason behind this dependence on agriculture is the economic downturn it faced with collapse of Soviet rule and the civil war that plagued the country. Nearly two thirds of the country is employed in subsistence agriculture. Nearly 900,000 of the total workforce of the country are employed in Russia or other countries. Government corruption is one the major challenges facing the country and contributing to the high levels of poverty in the country. The lowlands of the country specialize in the production of cotton, wheat, barley, fruit, vegetables and mulberry trees. A significant portion of the population of the nation is also engaged in livestock farming, such as sheep, dairy cattle, goats and yaks. The country also has deposits of silver, gold, uranium, tungsten, zinc, lead, coal, antimony, salt and mercury. But due to inadequate mining and raw-materials processing facilities, the country has not been able to benefit from its resources. The country’s hydro- electric resources are abundant, but the poor management of these resources has resulted in power shortages. Other industries which have suffered due to its separation from the Soviet Union include ginning cotton, spinning of silk, winemaking, carpet weaving, metals processing and textiles manufacturing. The major exports of the country include aluminium, electricity, cotton, fruits, vegetable oil and textiles. The major imports include petroleum products, electricity, aluminium oxide, machinery and equipment. The country trades primarily with Netherlands, Uzbekistan, Russia and Turkey. Inflation is the major crisis faced by the country and has been a major obstacle in Tajikistan’s economic growth. From 2001 to 2003, the inflation rate of the country decreased from 33 percent to16. 3 percent. In 2004, there was a drastic cut in inflation rate, as it reached the 6. 8% mark; but increased again in 2006 to 710%. 3. Political Scenario of the Country The country has witnessed a series of ups and downs as far as the political scenario of the country is concerned. The country gained its independence after the fall out of Soviet Union in 1991. The Independence was short lived because the country soon fell into a civil war that continued for six years. This internal turmoil was a result of tensions between the ruling elites and disenfranchised regions, democratic and liberal reformists and Islamists, who were under United Tajik Opposition. There were also other combatants and armed bands, which were not a part of any party and neither showed any kind of inclination for them. The civil war reached peak during 1992 to 1993. In 1997, there was a settlement reached between the United Tajik Opposition and the ruling Kulyabi-led Tajik Government. This peace accord was implemented in 2000. After the peace accord, the Government gradually started nation building. There is still a presence of Russian military in the country to secure the Tajikistan border with Afghanistan. The Russian 201st Motorized Rifle Division mostly consists of local Tajik officers and soldiers who never left the country and continued to live in Russia. The credentials of Parliamentary and Presidential Elections held in years 1999-2000 were doubtful, as they were labelled unfair yet peaceful by many. The Government created a strong secular image by including Islamists in the administration. There were problems in the country due to insurgency in Afghanistan, prior to the overthrow of Taliban in 2001. These forces posed a major threat to the peace prevailing through the peace accord. In 2004, there were threats to the peace when the tensions between President Emomali Rakhmonov and former war lords increased, creating ripples in the political conditions of the state. Even though life in general has become peaceful in the country, there are still elements within the country that continues to fight the prevailing conditions. There is widespread poverty, with more than half the population dependent on the international assistance. The economy is still burdened with aftermath of the Soviet past. There is too much of intervention by the State Government, which does not reflect a healthy democracy. There is too much corruption, as the state structures are involved in promoting it. This has resulted in driving away the foreign investors from the country. The current situation and the global recession have just added to the country’s problems. There is tension everywhere, since the country is fighting against too many hostilities with inadequate resources. Chapter 2: Aims Objectives 1. Aims Objectives The aim of this research is to explore the impact of global economic crisis on the economy as well as the political scenario in Tajikistan. The paper would look at the impact of global phenomenon on the current state of Tajikistan, which was marred by civil war since its inception. The objective of the paper is to look at the devastating impact of the current recession on the economy of the country. The internal stability of Tajikistan has been on stake due to this current crisis. In this research different aspects of this crisis on the political scene in the country would also be studied. 2. Statement of Research The research statement for this particular report, which studies the impact of the global recession on economy and the internal stability of Tajikistan, is given below: â€Å"The current global economy crisis is a potential threat to the remittance for the economy and internal stability of the nation of Tajikistan. † Chapter 3: Literature Review 1. Literature Review Tajikistan is an underdeveloped country and its economy is very poor. Moreover, the economic slump all over the world has led its economy into a more miserable plight. The recession has not only affected its economy; but is also likely to affect its political stability. This section will be a review of the already available facts and figures related to the research question. It will help in arriving at some meaningful conclusion and in analyzing the research question. According to the information obtained from the US Department of State, Tajikistan faces great corruption in its political field and the economy is continuously falling down. It is analyzed from the information that power is concentrated with only few individuals. The country is also involved in the opium and heroin trafficking and this is a great threat to the political stability of Tajikistan. The crime rate in the country has been increasing continuously, mainly due to lack of resources available to the people and disease like HIV/AIDS that is also rising at a rapid rate. This clearly shows that there is lack of awareness among the people. The only source of foreign revenue for the country is the exports of cotton and aluminium. The information also states that the external happenings all over the world also affect the economy and stability of the country to a great extent. This signifies that the economic recession has greatly affected the financial system and political stability (Background Note: Tajikistan 2009). From the presentation on â€Å"ECA region and the global economic crisis† it can be analyzed that the GDP growth has been affected to a great extent in Russia and Tajikistan is one of them. The remittances to the country have also reduced and are affecting economy greatly. This directly creates a bad impact for the economy of Tajikistan and also the political stability of the country. The ECA region is heavily affected by the financial catastrophe. From the figure on growth of migrant remittances, it can be clearly seen that the global, as well as, ECA remittances have been continuously falling in 2008 and 2009 due to economic downturn. Unemployment has been rising along with rise in imports and a fall in exports. This has badly affected the economic condition of Tajikistan. The country should focus on attaining long term productivity and social stability (Rohland 2009). From the Country Programme Document for Tajikistan, it can be analyzed that the country faces a number of challenges relating to its economy, administration and resources. The country needs to work for the economic prosperity of its people and should put its efforts for reducing the poverty in the country. The remittances in the country comprise about 37 percent of the GDP. However, now there has been inflation in the country and the energy and food prices have risen to considerable levels. Due to the economic recession, the country is facing fiscal disaster, which has reduced the economic growth, the exports and remittances coming to the country. The foreign capital inflows have reduced and the condition of the nation is continuously deteriorating (Draft country programme document for Tajikistan: 2010 – 2015 2009). It can also be identified from the report that the Government is corrupt, resulting in mismanagement of public finances. Everything remains centralized and the implementation of reforms is also very slow. Although, the country has launched various programs for reducing poverty, creating effective decision making, overcoming disasters and controlling the spread of diseases, yet they have not been implemented in a proper manner. The programs have also achieved certain results, yet they are not so helpful in improving the conditions of the country. Moreover, the economic downturn has worsened the situation and has affected the country in a great way. It is increasing the instability in the country and making it economically dependent on other countries. The UNDP program needs to work in the right direction to achieve the predefined goals for the country. In the news article on Tajikistan, On the Road to Failure, the International Crisis Group has forecasted that Tajikistan is on the verge to decline. It has no efficient leadership and also lacks infrastructure. Most of the people have migrated to other lands and the money which these migrants end back home is the main economic lifeline for the country. But as a result of economic slowdown, these remittances have highly reduced and the country is in a bad state. The cities that were earlier prosperous are also declining now and poverty is incessantly increasing. From the news article, it can be clearly analyzed that the country needs to reform its system and if economic downturn in the world will continue, then, this will create political, as well as, economic instability in the country (Tajikistan On the Road to Failure, Think Tank Concludes 2009). As per the article on â€Å"Government under Pressure†, it has been explained that due to global depression, people are losing their jobs and there are huge price cuts. This crisis has created a social, as well as, a political impact. It has led to political instability in the developing, developed and underdeveloped countries. The social unrest due to unemployment and other factors is mainly responsible for political instability. The demand is reducing day by day and there are chances of financial crisis. The social unrest can take the form of violent acts and can adversely harm the administrative settings of the countries. The political stability index has been formulated, which is based on indicators of susceptibility and economic suffering. They help in finding out the level of political instability in a specific country. The strong and the weak, both types of democracies are likely to be threatened and face political insecurity. Tajikistan is also a country that is under serious threat of facing unsteadiness and collapse of the Government. The income of the country is greatly affected by the remittances that have reduced, as a result of great economic suffering in the world (Governments under pressure 2009). In the report by Joshua Kucera, it has been clearly elucidated that Tajikistan is dominated by weak politics, low economic development and lack of adequate resources. The fall in the oil prices has led to social unrest and the economic downfall in the countries like Russia and Kazakhstan, which has affected the flow of remittances in the country of Tajikistan. This has reduced the revenue sources of the country and led to rising pressure for its internal stability. The banking sector of Kazakhstan has weakened due to the economic break down. There is a need for reforming the democratic system of the countries, to bring an end to corruption. The economic issues need to be handled in an effective manner. There is great political pressure and economic down turn in the central Asian countries, which is a hazard to their internal stability. All the economies are undergoing a critical stage and moreover, the financial system of Tajikistan is in a very bad state, and is about to collapse. The administrative settings should be improved and reformed in the country (Kucera, 2009). In the article by Falkowski, it has been identified that the economy of Tajikistan is dependent on Russia. The increasing energy crisis has led to tensions in relation to Russia. Tajikistan has now been considered as a failing state because its political and economic situation is continually worsening. The dissatisfaction among the people has been rising and it might result in conflicts within the nation. This might also create a menace for the neighbouring countries and worsen the situation of the country by each passing day (Falkowski 2009). The political system is collapsing and the economy is also on the verge of decline due to reduction in remittances and exports. This will definitely create internal volatility in Tajikistan. It can be identified that the nation is in a very miserable state and is very deeply affected by the economic depression. From the information obtained by International Labour Organization, it can be identified that the people working outside Tajikistan, are the significant source of revenue for the country. Workers going to other countries should be provided with economic, as well as, social security assistance. They face various difficulties working in foreign countries. The economic crisis will result in unemployment of migrant workers, adversely affecting remittances coming into the country. This in turn, will also negatively affect the national income and GDP of the country. The country is very much affected by the activities in the outside world. The ILO (International Labour Organization) has begun a program known as ‘Start and Improve Your Business’, which is aimed at helping the unemployed people as a result of world recession. It is also assisting people in Tajikistan by providing good employment opportunities to them (Migrants in times of economic crisis: ILO/UNDP joins forces to make Tajik migration safe 2009). In the report on â€Å"Migrant Worker Remittances Support Development in Tajikistan†, it has been identified that IOM (International Organization for Migrants) has been working effectively to provide help to the migrant workers from Tajikistan. It helps in generating employment for the people, who return back as a result of increasing economic slowdown. Remittances have a great impact on the development of the country. It is aimed at supporting migrants and analyzing the benefits that Tajikistan gains from the remittances earned through these migrants. Several programs and conferences have been organized for supporting migrant labourers and analyzing their conditions (Migrant Worker Remittances Support Development in Tajikistan, 2006). In the report on â€Å"Impact of Global Economic Crisis on Migrants and Migration†, it has been stated that the migrant workers form most of the major economic activities in a country and significantly contribute to the income of Tajikistan. If the immigrants are restricted to work in the foreign countries, this would worsen the situation of economic break down. Migrant workers are in one of the most vulnerable categories, arguably bearing the brunt of the economic downturn through loss meaningful employment abroad and loss of income. Efforts should be focused on identifying alternative employment opportunities within Tajikistan. Training should be provided to develop the required skills and enhancing their employment opportunities when they return. The report presented by IOM analyzes the effects of financial crises which have resulted in employment restrictions being imposed on migrant workers in the foreign countries (The Impact of the Global Economic Crisis on Migrants and Migration 2009). Working conditions and availability of meaningful employment has been affected by the growing unemployment rate. Central Bank of Russia statistics reflect that remittances improved in 2008, compared with 2007. The increasing remittances in 2008 had a buffering affect, effectively delaying the economic shock brought by the economic crisis first felt by the more developed economies. The slowdown in the Russian economy resulted in declining remittances to Tajikistan. Moreover, the migrants are also not able to send money, as the trust in the banking authorities have reduced because of the increasing economic downturn. The IOM aims at protecting the rights of migrants and helps in avoiding discrimination. If proper and timely assistance is not provided, this might result in increasing internal instability due to various social tensions in the countries, which are largely dependent on remittances. Thus, the policy of IOM aims at removing all these defects. In the report on â€Å"Central Asian countries†, it has been stated that the economy of Tajikistan remains much weaker in spite of increasing efforts of various authorities like IOM, UNDP, and ILO etc. The Corrupt Governmental setup has worsened the conditions in the country. The country requires various social reforms that can help in improving the conditions of the people. The European Commission has helped the nation in overcoming the problem of poverty and for managing public finance in an efficient manner. The EC aims at making developments in the field of energy, transport, education, border management etc. This has helped Tajikistan in a great way in overcoming its miserable situation. But more efforts need to be taken to avoid internal instability in the country as a result of recession (Central Asia Indicative Programme: 2007 – 2010 2009). In the book, â€Å"Towards social stability and democratic governance in Central Eurasia: challenges to regional security†, the author has explained that the international capital inflows reduce as a result of the economic depressions. The economic and political environment of the developed countries influences the flow of money to the developing, as well as, underdeveloped countries. The weak global economic situation has affected the people working outside their original countries and this has finally resulted into slow economic growth all over the world. Tajikistan is also affected in this process as the remittances to the country have reduced as a result of the economic slowdown. Labour migration has become an important source of earning in this country, which has affected its social stability (Morozova 2005). The article from the economist intelligence unit about the country outlook provides a brief overview of Tajikistan. It also throws light on the prevailing situation in the country. According to this article, the state is on the verge of political instability. The forecast for various economic indicators points towards a declining economy. The growth of Real GDP is estimated to be just 2. 5% in 2009. Inflation rate is expected to be high, as well as, the prices of international commodity would further go down. The current account deficit is expected to grow further (Tajikistan 2008). The domestic political scenario is expected to grow even worse as the threat of instability looms over it. Although, the country has come a long way from the civil war, yet there is still rise in public dissatisfaction due to failure of the Government to provide solutions to various social and economic problems. The return of migrant people from various countries is expected to pull the nation in state of unrest. The Government would have to go in for crisis management to tackle various problems. The prices of the products exported are likely to come down. According to the World Bank report on remittances forecast for 2009-10, these remittances are expected to go down. Many developing countries like Tajikistan are heavily dependant on these remittances, as these constitutes the money which their workers sent to their home countries. According to this report, the migrant workers are facing a lot of problems like job losses, anti-migrant sentiment and in some cases; even instances of violence have been reported. These are the results of the financial crisis that is troubling the global financial system at this time. According to the World Bank reports, these remittances are expected to fall by $290 billion in 2009. The only positive thing that this report indicates is that these remittances would still outdo the private capital flows and official assistance given to these countries (World Bank Lowers Remittances Forecast for 2009 as Financial Crisis Deepens 2009). According to the report â€Å"Tajikistan: Dushanbe Braces for Shock, As Remittances Set to fall off Cliff by Konstantin Parshin, the downslide of the economy of Russia is having a significant impact on the country of Tajikistan. The Russian Government in order to pull their country from this crisis is hitting out at the migrants workers by reducing the number of workers working in these countries. These efforts by the Government in Russia are having a negative impact on the economy of Tajikistan. The country is highly dependant on the remittances it receives through the migrant work forces (Parshin 2008). According to the top officials in Russia, these crackdowns on migratory workers quotas are important to ameliorate the conditions of the economy. This news has come as a shock to the migratory population, as it is expected to cut the jobs by half. Nearly 1 million Tajik nationals work in Russia. If this number is reduced, then, it would have a devastating effect on Tajikistan’s economy, since these workers send 98% of their income home. In US congressional report â€Å"Annual Threat Assessment of the Intelligence Community for the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence†, the emerging challenges due to this global recession in Russia and Eurasia have been discussed. The five nations in this region, which includes Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan, would be severely hit by the global recession. This situation might result in political instability in this region. This region according to the report is not at all prepared for dealing with violent extremism, economic crisis and other problem linked with distribution of water, energy and food (Blair 2009). The worst affected country in this region would be Tajikistan, which has too much dependence on remittances by migrant workers. This economic loss would result in weakening of the political stability in this region. This threat to political stability in this region can disrupt US and NATO’s lines of communication. In a report by Johannes F. Linn, titled â€Å"Tajikistan: Progress and Problems at the Heart of Central Asia†, the overview of this nation, as well as, the importance of the country stability in promoting the peace in the Central Asia has been talked about. This report throws light on

Indian Influence Essay Example for Free

Indian Influence Essay This paper aims to discuss the question of to what extent the Indians have influenced place names and the vocabulary of American English. Considering that Native American Indians are the oldest people in America, it is natural that their language and culture have had some influence upon the development of American English, as well as upon place names in America. It is believed that the first Native Americans arrived during the last ice-age, approximately 20,000 30,000 years ago . There are a great number of American place names, including those of large cities and states, which have been named after Indian words – it’s estimated that at least half of the states get their names from Indian words. These include Arizona, which comes from the Indian word Arizonac, which means little spring or young spring. Arizona has a history rich in legends of pertaining to the West. Here Indian chiefs Geronimo and Cochise led the fight against the frontiersmen. Tombstone, Arizona, was the site of the most famous shootout in the West, this being the gunfight at the O. K. Corral. Names of other states influenced by the Indians include Arkansas which comes from the Quapaw Indians, Iowa, which probably comes from an Indian name meaning â€Å"this is the place† or â€Å"the Beautiful Land†, Oklahoma, which is from two Choctaw Indian words meaning red people, and Wyoming, which is from the Delaware Indian word meaning â€Å"mountains and valleys alternating†, just like the Wyoming Valley in Pennsylvania. It can therefore be seen that the influence of American Indians has had quite a large impact on the naming of places in America. The vocabulary of American English has also been quite profoundly impacted. In a similar way that thousands of place names have been impacted by Indian words, so have many US English words have their roots in American Indian. These help in making the language the rich, cultural affair that it is today, and include not only words such as tomahawk from the Virginia Algonquian tamahaac, totem from the Ojibwa nindoodem, my totem, wampum from the Massachusetts wampumpeag , wigwam from the Eastern Abenaki wikwom but also moccasin from the Virginia Algonquian moose from the Eastern Abenaki mos, papoose from the Narragansett papoos, child, pecan from the Illinois pakani which are used with relevance to everyday American things. The word Podunk, meant to describe an insignificant town out in the middle of nowhere, comes from a Natick Indian word meaning swampy place. Many of these words borrowed from American Indians are nouns from the Algonquian languages that used to be common and widely spoken along the Atlantic coast. English colonists, who came across iar plants and animals which were strange to them at the time named them based on Indian terms. Naturally enough pronunciation changed and words were shortened in order to make them easier for the English tongue. But the fact remains that their roots are in American Indian words. Conclusion This paper shows that the Indians have influenced both place names and the vocabulary of American English to a large degree. REFERENCES Infoplease, 2005 American Indian Loan Words, retrieved 8 May 2006 from the website http://www. infoplease. com/spot/aihmwords1. html Native Americans, 2005, The Bravest of the Brave, retrieved 8 May 2006 from the website http://www. nativeamericans. com/ Fact Monster, 2005, American Indian Place Names retrieved 8 May 2006 from the website http://www. factmonster. com/spot/aihmnames1. html

Brother-Sister Marriages in Graeco Roman Egypt

Brother-Sister Marriages in Graeco Roman Egypt Was it common to find brother-sister marriages in Graeco-Roman Egypt? What is the Evidence for this? This essay will be focusing on brother-sister marriages in Graeco Roman Egypt, and the evidence that we have for it through papyri sources. Although inter-family marriages are not common today, they were certainly practised during Graeco-Roman Egypt. The aim of this essay is to high-light the reasons why such marriages occurred and also, provide evidence of such marriages by means of papyri letters, contracts and documents that was saved from the period. Furthermore, this paper is going to present ideas about incest, and whether or not brother-sister marriages were accepted by society, who can marry, and theories for inter-marriage. During the Roman Egypt period, a census was orchestrated every 14 years, in order to take a household count, and to control taxes. Today, only 172 legible census reports remain, and historians and papyrologists have used this information to analyse the lives of the Graeco-Roman Egypt citizens. This analysis and papyri evidence, and also the works of notable anthropologists, historians and papyrologists, has helped to answer and understand this argument today. Background and Origins of Brother-Sister marriage Nearly everybody in Roman Egypt was married at some point in their lives. Girls in Roman Egypt were expected to be married as young as 12, and definitely by their mid 20s. In Graeco Roman Egypt, marriage laws were different and confusing amongst each society. Marriages were performed under contracts, and for most marriages, there were no age restrictions, unlike today. The strangest element of Graeco-Roman Egypt was that there was no law against close-kin marriages. In fact, brothers and sisters often married as was practiced throughout the previous generations. Evidence for this came from the Roman period through papyri and census returns. It was believed that before the Roman period, women were the inheritors of the land and in order to keep it in the family, the inheritor would have had to marry her brother.The Romans prohibited this custom and would often confiscate the estate if such a marriage took place. However, this law did not apply for Egyptians. For many societies today, it is considered normal to avoid sexual relationships between full brother and sister. However, in the Mediterranean world, such as in the Greek and Roman societies, close kin marriages such as cousin-cousin or even uncle-niece marriages were accepted and encouraged. Brother-Sister marriages originated from the Egyptian tradition of â€Å"Royal incest† which was practised in Egypt by the Pharaohs as far back as 2000BC. According to anthropologist ÄÅ'erny, brother-sister marriages in the royal family were very frequent. For example, the marriage of brother and sister, Isis and Osiris, was seen as divine incest to avoid outsiders. Other Royal marriage amongst brother and sister was that during the Ptolemy Era in Egypt. Cleopatra and her brother Ptolemy XIV were married and she did bore his offspring. It is believed one of the explanations for these Royal marriages was a â€Å"strategy to avoid splitting up of property†or to maintain â€Å"ethnic political status† of the Greeks in Egypt. Although marriage between brother-sister was frequent within the royal family and in Graeco Roman Egypt during the second century CE, it was common for husbands to call their wives ‘sister. This is however not strong enough evidence to ce rtify brother-sister marriage. The laws for marrying brothers and sisters were different in each country. In Ancient Greece, Athenians were allowed to marry half siblings if they were from the same father but different mother whereas Spartans were allowed to marry half siblings from the same mother but different father. In Egypt it is argued to be customary to marry brother and sister. Greek King Ptolemy II continued this custom and married his sister Arsinoe which violated his native Macedonian custom. This started a ‘trend as the next seven of the eleven Greek kings of Egypt married their sisters. Full brother and sister marriage or â€Å"incestuous marriages† is believed to be a regular practise in Graeco Roman Egypt and it took place mainly amongst the elite population. The marriages were genuine, not just for bureaucratic reasons. Many sociologists find this hard to comprehend without returning to the taboo on incest. Evidence of the marriages was first noticed in papyri dating from as early as the first century CE. Although brother-sister marriage would be deemed incestuous today, evidence appearing in papyri shows that brother-sister marriages were socially and legally accepted at the time. This can be seen from official census returns which shows that a large percentage of the marriages were between brother and sister.However, as stated before, attention should be taken when interpreting the papyri. Private letters which were amongst the papyri found in the Fayyum area of Egypt, showed the terms ‘brother and ‘sister in letters between husbands and wives. This nevertheless, should not be taken as literally. Most of the papyri documenting these marriages originate from the Fayyum and according to Hopkins; the women are documented as being â€Å"wife and sister from the same father and the same mother† which â€Å"leaves little room for ambiguity†. Perhaps brother-sister marriage can be due to a restriction of choice. In Roman Egypt, marriages were most likely to have been arranged and therefore, many young women ended up marrying older men or men pre-arranged through family. For Greeks and Romans in Egypt, the choice was very limited as there was the political and social status to consider. Many Greeks did marry Egyptian women however, certain laws applied when it came to status regarding children. Marrying brother and sister was seen as the ideal solution to some Greek families as it overcame the issue of a dowry or the division of family property. Inter family marriages also overcame issues of Greek racism. Sociologist Brent Shaw suggests that Greek settlers in Egypt married within the family to separate themselves from the Egyptian population and to also keep a pure blood ancestry so to avoid tax disadvantages. Despite all these reasons, most scholars agree that although practised, it is known that both Greek and Roman societies prohibited any sexual relationship between siblings. However, in most cases, Greek traditions of endogamy were pushed to the limit. It is also believed amongst scholars that although practised throughout lower and upper Egypt, in the bigger towns rather than villages, inter family marriages were more common amongst the Greek than the Egyptians. This phenomenon of endogamy in Graeco Roman Egypt could be traced to Greek Oedipal mythology, which leads us to the subject of incest. Is Brother-Sister Marriage Considered Incest? Incest refers to sexual activity between two family members and is very much a cultural taboo in most societies and holds heavy penalties. Whilst parent-children or sibling-sibling relations are illegal, other relations such as cousin-cousin may be acceptable in other societies and cultures. The practice of brother-sister marriage has never been common among any other society apart from the Graeco-Roman Egyptian society. Full brother and sister marriage was practised throughout the first three centuries after Christ. Incestuous marriage was widespread during Graeco-Roman Egypt and the evidence for this show in numerous papyri and household census returns. Anthropologist Brent Shaw states that, â€Å"the word incest is linked to moral, social and legal norms established in Graeco-Roman antiquity.† The Latin word for incest- incestum means to be ‘unclean or ‘not pure which refers more specifically to committing a forbidden act between family members. In Graeco-Roman antiquity, there was a difference as to what was considered acceptable behaviour. Roman law and social practices regarding incestuous marriage was far more intolerable than those of Greek law and practices. Shaw states that the Greeks did not have a word similar to the Latin ‘incestumuntil the arrival of Christianity to the society. This shows the differences in attitude towards brother-sister and other close kin marriages.In Greek society, close kin marriage was more acceptable and practised than it was in Roman society. This attitude shows in the story of Oedipus and other stories of the same nature. This attitude was brought over to Egypt and even continued and encouraged. Marriage between cousins and half brother/sister marriages were accepted and became the norm for the Greek population in Egypt. This caused a clash with the Roman societys ‘stringent rules towards incest. Marriages between ethnicities, for example Greek or Roman-Egyptian were however frowned upon. It is not certain whether these marriages can be considered ‘incestuous as a long history of sibling marriage existed throughout the society. To them, this was regarded as the norm and it even existed amongst Egyptian Royalty. The addition of myths and stories justified that brother-sister marriage was accepted and that incest was doubtful. Potential Theories for Inter-Marriage In Egypt, this practice was common amongst the Royal family; however it was still considered a taboo. There are no real explanations as to why they adopted these practices but sociologist Hopkins believes that there are four theories behind inter-family marriage. One factor being the high rate of mortality. Research into the demography of Graeco Roman Egypt at the time, shows that the gap between surviving siblings is so high that the â€Å"son looking for a mate must go outside the family.† Therefore, the only way to solve this was to marry within the family. However, according to the â€Å"indifference theory† by J.R. Fox, belief was that â€Å"boys and girls living and playing together from childhood showed an absence of erotic feeling towards each other†. The main point behind this theory is that â€Å"boys and girls brought up together show no desire for incest.† However in contradiction to this, there were instances of incest between siblings which links to Sigmund Freuds theory of â€Å"suppression† where â€Å"incestuous desires come from the subconscious†.This again, relates to the influences of Greek myths such as Oedipus and stories of Egyptian Gods Isis and Osiris who were brother and sister as well as husband and wife. Social Class Social status may play a part in brother-sister marriages. Those with status liked to maintain â€Å"racial purity† and this was maintained through means of close-kin marriages. The social class in Graeco-Roman Egypt was divided. The Romans and Greeks lived privileged lives whereas the Egyptians remained poor. Therefore, marriages remained within the respective societies. With respect to inheritance, sibling marriages were favoured as any land was to be distributed equally among the children. However in regards to women in Graeco-Roman Egypt, property and land was secured by marriage contracts therefore being financially protected in the event of divorce of death of a husband. Those who still inherited land were not subject to the Roman tax poll. Women who married out of the family had to take along with her property that she had inherited. Therefore, the only way to keep property within the family, even if the marriage ended in divorce or death was to marry a brother. According to Greek practices the father had the power to choose a spouse for his daughter and so, the ideal solution was to arrange brother-sister marriages so that the family will not lose property as land was very important for social status and mobility, and was used for financial gain. As girls married young in Graeco-Roman Egypt, it was fairly easy to influence these marriages. Papyri Evidence of Brother-Sister Marriage Evidence for such marriages comes from the census household returns. However, the evidence can be seen as biased to the richer population as their papers would have been better preserved compared to those of the poor Egyptians. The census was conducted every 14 years between the years 19 C.E. and 257 C.E. Out of 172 of the legible census returns, between 15-21 per cent was marriage between brother and sister. 12 per cent of these marriages were between full brother and sister. Here are the papyri evidence for brother-sister marriage, which comes in the form of letters, wedding invitations, marriage contracts and birth registrations: Registering the birth of a son P.Oxy 2858 To Agathodaimon and Herakleidesscribes of the metropolis, from Kephalas son of Heron son of Theon and from his wife who is sister of the same father and of the same mother,Didumewe register the son born to us, Didumos. We deposit a notification of his birth. This is a document registering the birth of a son. The parents are citizens of the Metropolis Arsinoe. This was a privileged status and their reference of being husband and wife as well as brother and sister was necessary to identify themselves. Here is another example of a brother-sister couple registering the birth of their child: Apynchis and Tapasis, his sister-wife, registering their eight year old daughter 14 February 185 AD To Hermophilos, royal scribe of the Arsinoite nome. Herakleides division, from Aphynchis, son of an unknown father and his mother Tapholemis, and from his sister Tapasis, born from the same mother who is also his wifewe register our daughter Taesis, who was born to us both and is now eight years old The next papyri source comes from two parents who were also children of a brother-sister marriage. This papyri shows two generations of brother-sister marriages, therefore proving that it did occur and that it was common and accepted in society. P.Tebt.320 To Sarapionand Serenusexamining magistrates, from Eudaimon, son of Heron son of Souchas, his mother being Herons sister Thermoutharion and from his wife Sarapias who is his sister of the same father and of the same mother, both of metropolitan status Hopkins suggests that brother-sister marriage was due to parents wanting to save the expense of their daughters dowry. However, he also states that this was not an advantage in means of wealth as outside marriages could potentially bring in the same amount of wealth in terms of inheritance. Some Egyptians just chose to believe that brother-sister marriage would result in an economical advantage. This papyri is an example of a marriage settlement between brother and sister, where a dowry was specified. This proves that as well as this being a brother-sister marriage, the brother/husband also received a dowry from her, perhaps paid by their father. BGU 183; Mitteis, Chrestomathie 313 Horos son of Tesenophisaged about forty three years with a scar on the left calf agrees with his own sister by the same father and the same mother who is also his wife, Eriea, aged about thirty five years with a scarthat he as party to agreement has hereby received from hera dowry of silverto the value of twenty drachmae. Let the married pair live together without recrimination just as they have done before, and Horos is to provide all necessities and clothing befitting to a wedded wifeIf Horos leaves her, then he as party to the agreement is to return the dowry within thirty days of being asked for it Other evidence of brother-sister marriage comes in the form of a divorce contract. Even though the couple are brother and sister, sometimes, the marriage does not work out, and therefore ends in divorce. Here is an example of this: P.Mil.Vogl.85, AD 138 Copy of a contract;Kronion son of Kronion aged about 54 years with a scar on his left forearm and his ex wife Taorsenouphis, who is also his sister of the same father and of the same mother, aged 50 years without distinguishing marksagree with each other that their life together has been brought to an endand it is agreed that each of them may administer his own affairs as he chooses and Taorsenouphis can live together with another man without reprisal of any kind Brother-Sister marriages were seen as common and not abnormal, therefore they were celebrated openly and guests were invited by invitation: P.Oxy.524 Dionysius invites you to dinner at the marriage of his own children (teknà ´n)tomorrow, that is the 30th at the 9th hour P.Oxy. III Herais invites you to dinner at the marriage of her children at home tomorrow, that is the fifth, at the 9th hour. These wedding invitations clearly show that brother-sister marriage was in fact common and accepted by society. They also provide proof that such practices did occur. Invitations were usually delivered by hand the day before the wedding.> Private letters between husbands and wives may provide evidence of brother-sister marriage, but they cannot be seen as sufficient proof as calling someone ‘brother or ‘sister was seen as a term of endearment. There are archives of letters between husband and wife using these terms of endearment, however, the next source is of a letter from a husband to his wife and sister: P.Oxy.528 Serenus to Isidora, his sister and wife, many greetings. Before all else I pray that you are wellI want you to know that ever since you left me I have been grieving, weeping by night and lamenting by dayYou sent me letters which would have moved a stone, so much did your words affect me. Do let me know if you are coming back or not. This letter shows that although they were brother and sister, they were also affectionate as husband and wife. Love was an evident emotion in brother-sister marriage as well as in outside marriage. This goes to show that perhaps the children were not forced to marry but chose to marry out of love for their sibling. Evidence for love, comes in the form of this love letter, perhaps from a wife to her husband: P.Oxy.3059 Didyme to Apollonius, her brother and sun greetings.Know that I do not see the sun,Since I do not see you;I have no sun but you The archive of Apollonios the strategos and Aline, AD 113-120 This was an archive of over 200 Greek papyri, belonging to the wealthy Apollonios family who were landowners in the Hermopolite nome. Apollonios the strategos was part of the highest office in the bureaucracy of Graeco-Roman Egypt. Apollonios was married to Aline who was believed to also be his sister. The couple frequently wrote letters as Apollonios spent most of his time away from his family, addressing each other as ‘brother and ‘sister.> Aline to Apollonios C.Pap.Jud.II 436 (September AD 115) Aline to Apollonios her brother, many greetings. I am very worried about you, because of events that are said to be taking place and because you left me suddenlyPlease, then, keep yourself safe and do not put yourself in dangerTo Apollonios my brother. This could be proof that they were brother and sister, as well as husband and wife. However, due to the frequent use of ‘brother and ‘sister during the time, it is not certain whether this can be used as real evidence. We now return to the question being posed of this paper; â€Å"Was it common to find brother-sister marriages in Graeco-Roman Egypt?† The answer is indeed, yes, it was common to find these marriages. Brother-sister marriages were considered a norm for Graeco-Roman Egypt as it was practised* by ancestors before them. We also know that these marriages were sanctioned in traditional myths such as, the brother-sister marriage of Isis and Osiris. The Oedipus myth also allowed this practise to be justified. These marriages were not classed as ‘incestuous as it was very normal and traditional to marry within the family. Inheriting land and property also played a part in making these marriages common, as families wanted their land to be kept within the family. From the surviving evidence, we can see that people openly stated in letters and documents that they were ‘husband and wife of the same father and of the same mother. And wedding invitations were even sent to guests, inviting them to celebrate the family wedding. It is fair to say that these marriages were accepted. Brother-sister marriages were more common amongst the Greeks and Egyptians rather than the Roman citizens, as it was customary in Greek and Egyptian cultures. The genetic effects amongst offspring of these marriages are un-known as nothing in papyri states that family marriages links to this. However, considering some families only married within the family for several generations, it may be safe to say that there is no direct link between sibling marriage and genetic defects, which is probably why it was more acceptable during that period. References Bagnall, R.S. and B. Frier (1994) â€Å"The Demography of Roman Egypt† (Cambridge) Lindsay, J. (1963) â€Å"Daily Life in Roman Egypt† (Frederick Muller Limited) Lindsay, J. (1963) â€Å"Daily Life in Roman Egypt† (Frederick Muller Limited) Lindsay, J. (1963) â€Å"Daily Life in Roman Egypt† (Frederick Muller Limited) Huebner,S.R (2007) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† (Columbia) Huebner,S.R (2007) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt†(Columbia) Shaw B.D. (1992) â€Å"Explaining Incest: Brother Sister Marriage in Graeco-Roman Egypt† Shaw B.D. (1992) â€Å"Explaining Incest: Brother Sister Marriage in Graeco-Roman Egypt† Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History Bagnall, R.S. and B. Frier (1994) â€Å"The Demography of Roman Egypt† (Cambridge) Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History Shaw B.D. (1992) â€Å"Explaining Incest: Brother Sister Marriage in Graeco-Roman Egypt† Endogamy-marriage within a particular society or tribe or ancestry J. Modrzejewski,(2005) â€Å"Greek law in the Hellenistic Period: Family and Marriage† (Cambridge) Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History Shaw B.D. (1992) â€Å"Explaining Incest: Brother Sister Marriage in Graeco-Roman Egypt† Shaw B.D. (1992) â€Å"Explaining Incest: Brother Sister Marriage in Graeco-Roman Egypt† Shaw B.D. (1992) â€Å"Explaining Incest: Brother Sister Marriage in Graeco-Roman Egypt† Shaw B.D. (1992) â€Å"Explaining Incest: Brother Sister Marriage in Graeco-Roman Egypt† Parker, S. (1996) â€Å"Full Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt: Another Look† Cultural Anthropology, Vol.11, No.3, pp362-376(American Anthropological Association) Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History Fox,J, R. (1962) â€Å"Sibling Incest†, British Journal of Sociology Vol. 13, No.2 pp.128-150 (Blackwell Publishing) Fox,J, R. (1962) â€Å"Sibling Incest†, British Journal of Sociology Vol. 13, No.2 pp.128-150 (Blackwell Publishing) Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History Parker, S. (1996) â€Å"Full Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt: Another Look† Cultural Anthropology, Vol.11, No.3, pp362-376(American Anthropological Association) Parker, S. (1996) â€Å"Full Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt: Another Look† Cultural Anthropology, Vol.11, No.3, pp362-376(American Anthropological Association) Parker, S. (1996) â€Å"Full Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt: Another Look† Cultural Anthropology, Vol.11, No.3, pp362-376(American Anthropological Association) Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History Parker, S. (1996) â€Å"Full Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt: Another Look† Cultural Anthropology, Vol.11, No.3, pp362-376(American Anthropological Association) Parker, S. (1996) â€Å"Full Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt: Another Look† Cultural Anthropology, Vol.11, No.3, pp362-376(American Anthropological Association) Rowlandson, J., (1998) Women Society in Greek Roman Egypt; a sourcebook. (Cambridge) Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History, Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History, Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History, Rowlandson, J., (1998) Women Society in Greek Roman Egypt; a sourcebook. (Cambridge) Rowlandson, J., (1998) Women Society in Greek Roman Egypt; a sourcebook. (Cambridge) Verb: ‘He practises the piano every day noun: ‘These practices have all but died out